1. Introduction / General Findings / Thesis

Art, as the most sublime visualization of human creativity, serves both as a mirror and a catalyst. It weaves societal evolution and invites each of us to sway from its influence. It resembles an invisible yet omnipresent current, shaping not only aesthetics but also the very fabrics of cultural, political, and societal structures. This paper explores art and art history, guided by the question "How has art influenced/impacted society historically?"

It has always been obvious that art is not a passive bystander in history, but an active participant. But it is precisely this level of activeness which art participates in that makes answering this question so difficult. Galleries? Studios? Identity formation? Power dynamics? Forging cultural narratives? From ancient cave paintings to the avant-garde provocations of the modern time, art has claimed a silent witness to the rise and fall of empires, the birth of ideologies, and the metamorphosis of societies. Thus, the question shall be examined from a multifaceted perspective, drawing inspiration from philosophers who dared to dissect human expression: Michel Foucault, and his exploration of power and discourse; Edward Said, and his critique of colonial representations; R.G. Collingwood, and his emphasis on the emotional dimensions of art; Jules Michelet, and his patriotic historiography; and Wilhelm von Humboldt, with his celebration of individuality.

To grapple with this profound question is to engage with primary sources that chronicle the past: brushstrokes, architecture, verses, among others. This question is meant to attempt to reveal the aspirations, conflicts, and collective dreams of civilizations. But why bother?

By understanding the historical impact of art, we resonate with communities and their traditions, their beliefs, their values. The preservation and interpretation of artistic expressions provide a tangible link to a society's heritage, fostering a deeper appreciation for the rich tapestry of human civilization. There have often been artistic movements in response to social dynamics and power structures, and this relationship could allow us an understanding of the intricate connections between artistic expressions and societal norms. In cases where art is not caused by society, it acts as a catalyst to propel social change, acting as a tool for reinforcing established structures. Understanding how art has historically served as a conduit for expressing the human experience deepens our appreciation for the shared threads of emotion that connect diverse societies across time. Even more than emotion, artistic innovation often precedes broader cultural shifts, many pioneering artists have catapulted societies towards new ways of thinking. By recognizing the catalytic role of art in cultural evolution, we gain insights into the forces that drive societal progress, innovation, and adaptation to changing circumstances.

Scholars across disciplines have endeavored to connect artistic endeavors to the broader fabric of historical development. In tracing the historical trajectory of the dynamic relationship between art and society, historically, certain key findings emerge. Art has consistently functioned as a cultural meter, reflecting the values, beliefs, and aspirations of societies across different epochs. In The Lives of the Artists by Giorgio Vasari, a 16th century Italian painter and architect himself, Vasari's depiction of Leonardo da Vinci highlights the artist's embodiment of Renaissance ideals, and is one such example illustrating art’s functioning on the cultural landscapes of Renaissance Italy. Leonardo's mastery in various disciplines, including painting, engineering, and his understanding of the sciences, particularly anatomy, reflected the Renaissance spirit of intellectual curiosity and humanism. His works, such as the "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper," showcased technical brilliance alongside the humanistic outlook. Yet, art's historical impact is not confined to the grand narratives of political or cultural movements; it also permeates the everyday, shaping individual and collective identities. From the aesthetics of religious iconography to the visual language of advertising, art embeds itself in the cultural subconscious, influencing perceptions and shaping societal norms.

Art history unfolds as a collection of eras where culture, politics, and intellect cross, overlap, and ultimately merge into a rise of transformation. The Renaissance emerges as one such crucible, with art actively shaping society. Geniuses such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Botticelli, Jan van Eyck, Andrea Mantegna, and Caravaggio revealed a rebirth of interest in classical knowledge, humanism, and the celebration of individual creativity. Similarly, the Romantic era, where creators embraced emotion, coddled nature, and upheld subjectivity, marked a revolution from the rationalism of the Enlightenment. This period illustrated how art became a vehicle for expressing societal reactions to industrialization, urbanization, and the changing dynamics of power.

But understand such examples, alongside movements such as Cubism, Surrealism, and Abstract Expressionism - with respect to artists who epitomized their work and their style within their genre - are notably only known examples in visual art. Art, as mentioned previously, spreads across disciplines, with no tangible volume of definitions. Consider authors (and within authorship we can continue to divide: fiction, non-fiction, etc) such as Ernest Hemingway, Virginia Woolf, or Ryūnosuke Akutagawa; philosophers like Otto Weininger, Ludwig Boltzmann, or Carlo Michelstaedter (for one’s philosophy is one’s creation. How is that different from art?); poets including Sylvia Plath, Sarah Teasdale, or Vladimir Mayakovsky; or consider any categories of art, myriad and diverse like the art existing in any of the categories.

Now realize that such a network all falls under the umbrella of art. That should provide a scale. Furthermore, the influences of the artists within any of the categories mentioned above concludes and influences more than what is contained or related to art. More than any artistic movement, or stylistic format, or even revolutionary changes, in the artistic realm. There could be artists who grappled with the upheavals of two World Wars, or the rise of mass media, or the advent of existential uncertainty, or all three elements (notably Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, and Jackson Pollock).

An overarching trend that emerges from scholarly discourse is the transformative power of art during periods of societal upheaval. Whether as a mirror reflecting the prevailing moral or a cultural climate or as a catalyst for challenging established norms, art becomes a lens through which we can understand the complexities of historical change. Furthermore, the democratization of art in contemporary times, facilitated by technological advancements and global interconnectedness, invites a reevaluation of its impact. Is it now a legitimate case that art has transcended geographical boundaries, allowing for a more diverse array of voices to contribute to the ongoing conversation. In an era of rapid globalization, questions arise regarding how art, as both a global and local force, influences the collective identity of societies.

2. Theories and Methodologies of Philosophers

Michel Foucault marks the first philosopher whose ideas are directly integratable into the topic of art and society. Foucault pioneered influential concepts in understanding power dynamics, knowledge construction, and pinpointing how discourse shapes societal structures. Central to his thought is the rejection of traditional narratives. Foucault emphasizes the pervasive, decentralized, and inherent nature of power regarding social institutions. Foucault’s interest in knowledge parallels the transformative potential that art holds, as previously described. Artistic creations can both construct as well as disseminate knowledge. Foucault’s concept of resistance within power structures is relevant when studying art’s impact. There have been artworks that challenged dominant discourses and illustrated (at scales even larger than the media, is in cases where the media fails to (or chooses) to avoid to cover) alternative perspective.s This resistance, manifested to the sheer at of creating, imbuing one’s creation with expression (or vice versa), becomes a means through which societal norms are both reflected upon and contested. Applying Foucault’s methods requires understanding the historical shifts in artists movements and discourse. For instance, the transition from Romanticism to Realism represents a discursive shift where artistic expressions moved away from idealized representations to more realistic portrayals, influencing societal perceptions of beauty, emotion, and truth. Foucault’s notion of the panopticon, his definition of societal surveillance, can be applied to art institutions. Museums, galleries, spaces or sites where societal norms are both displayed and reinforced. These spaces are particularly important for analyzing how art falls within the dynamic and unpredictable power structure throughout history. By focusing on power dynamics, discourse, and knowledge construction, one can apply Foucauldian concepts to unravel the complex interplay between art and power, offering a nuanced understanding of how artistic expressions influence and are influenced by the broader currents of societal change.

Consider, for example, how the Surrealist movement in the early 20th century could be, through Foucauldian analysis, a discursive formation challenging norms and structures. Artists such as Salvador Dali and Andre Breton, with their desire to liberate the unconscious mind and bridge the subconscious and the conscious, created a rupture in the prevailing discourse of rationalism and order. Foucault's concept of the "episteme," representing the dominant knowledge structures of a given era, becomes pertinent when analyzing how Surrealism impacted society. The movement created disruptions in existing ideas, hypothesis, and understandings of reality, sanity, and human consciousness.s The imagery and explorative methods surrealist artists capitalize upon challenged both artistic and societal norms, and, in doing so, contributed to a reconfiguration of the epistemic landscape. Furthermore, let one imagine (as surrealists often do) a hypothetical world. A conservative society where adherence to rationality and traditional aesthetics is the norm: a surrealist exhibition is unveiled. The juxtaposition of dreamscapes, insanity, and artistic techniques intersects with conventionality. Here, Foucault's notion of the "power/knowledge" relationship comes into play. The Surrealist artists, by disrupting conventional representations, exercise a form of power. They challenge and reshape the knowledge structures that govern perceptions of reality. Foucault's lens allows us to discern how this artistic movement, by engaging in a discourse that transcends the canvas, influences societal attitudes and norms. The Surrealists, operating within the nexus of power and knowledge, exemplify how art can be a catalyst for transforming the very fabric of the society.

Edward Said, a figure in post colonial studies, shifting through realism of literature, politics, and cultural theory, has carefully dissected Western representations of the East, with an approach which dives into the construction of knowledge and identity. Said's postcolonial framework challenges traditional narratives by deconstructing the ways in which cultures and societies are depicted, particularly in the context of Western colonial hegemony. His analysis covers more than the political and the cultural, arguing that the West has historically constructed a binary opposition between the “Orient” (a constructed and exoticized idea of the East, perpetuated by Western scholarship and cultural representations, which served to establish and reinforce Western dominance over Eastern societies) and the “Occident” (the Western world, reflecting the geopolitical and cultural hegemony that shaped the West's often distorted perceptions and representations of the East), which perpetuates stereotypes and reinforces colonial dominance. Said’s theories provide a compelling angle for examining art and society historically, as his work highlights the role of cultural representations in shaping perceptions and reinforcing or challenging power structures. Art is an expression inherently cultural, and sets the stage for contesting dominant narratives and encouraging asking questions such as: Who controls the narratives? Whose voices become marginalized? And how does cultural artworks / creations contribute to power and identity akin to each culture? Said would view art not as a neutral entity to be experienced / viewed / interpreted, but an active entity which forces its way into people’s lives, provoking (in most cases) uncontrollable reactions and subverting colonial legacies.

Imagine that during the 19th century, European colonial powers, in an attempt to extend their influence across Adia, Africa, and the Middle East, embarked on imperialist ventures. Artists felt inspired by exoticity, and naturally produced a wave of Orientalist art depicting such “distant lands”. In applying Said's ideas, we can discern the ways in which such artistic representations both reflected and perpetuated colonial power dynamics. In such a scenario, Orientalist paintings depicting the Middle East would portray a romanticized and often distorted vision of the region. Artists, influenced by prevailing colonial narratives and individualized preconceived notions, would present a fantasy-laden version of the East that aligns with Western assumptions. Consider a painting that showcases a bustling bazaar in Cairo. The artist (knowingly or unknowingly, steeped in Orientalist tropes) might choose vibrant colors, paint exotic clothing, and illustrate a sense of timeless otherness. While aesthetically pleasing, this representation serves a dual purpose. It caters to the Western audience's fascination with exoticism and reinforces existing stereotypes of the East as mysterious and backward. Simultaneously, it contributes to the broader colonial discourse, justifying imperialism endeavors by portraying the colonized as in need of Western intervention. The artwork, when analyzed as Said would, functions not merely as a canvas but as a cultural artifact within the power structures of the time. It reflects the societal beliefs and aspirations of the West during the colonial era, and perpetuates a narrative that influenced not only artistic expression but also broader attitudes towards the colonized.

R. G. Collingwood offers a framework where artistic expression and the inner life of individuals overlap. His theory underscores the expression of thought and emotion and how such human experiences serve as the foundational pillow for unraveling the intricate connections between artistic creation and human experiance (life, not reaction of art). Collingwood advanced the idea that art is a form of expression unique to each individual, and it is precisely such uniqueness that allows art, above all else, to communicate their innermost thoughts and emotions. Collingwood argues that art is not merely a representation of external objects but a mode of self-expression. For Collingwood, the artist engages in a process of "re-enactment," wherein the creation of art involves the artist's reliving and expressing their own emotional and intellectual experiences. Following such a logic, even art that one person calls bad art could be meaningful to another, and even art that every viewer calls bad art could be meaningful to the artist, who derives meaning directly from the uniqueness / fact that the work is not found attractive to others. Collingwood's philosophy positions art as a vehicle through which the inner life of individuals becomes tangible and accessible. The artist, according to Collingwood, goes beyond mere imitation of external reality; they delve into the realm of personal experience, transforming abstract thoughts and emotions into tangible forms. Art, in this context, becomes a window into the artist's own inner world, offering viewers a direct connection to the artist's thoughts and emotions. This context also structures art as a documentation to access the thoughts and emotions of past artists and societies. By linking the historical context with the work’s artistic expression, however it resonates, art becomes a medium that allows society to leave behind a legacy. In short, Collingwood’s philosophy of relating thought and emotions to the cornerstones of art provides a robust understanding of the impact of art both individually and collectively on people’s inner lives, and reshapes art as dynamis and intimate.

Hypothetically, in the midst of the Industrial Revolution, a group of artists emerges, with their key desire being to convey the emotional and intellectual responses of individuals to the profound transformations surrounding them. One artist, influenced by Collingwood's call to explore the depths of emotion and thought, creates a series of paintings depicting the contrast between the agrarian past and the industrial present. The use of color, composition, and symbolism in these artworks serves as a visual language, expressing the melancholy, nostalgia, and hope that individuals experience amidst the rapid industrialization. The artist's canvases become a mirror reflecting the inner turmoil and aspirations of society in flux. In this scene, Collingwood’s philosophy is obviously relevant. It places the artist as a mediator between their inner experiences and the external world. The act of artistic creation, in this context, becomes a form of historical documentation, capturing the nuances of societal transformation that traditional historical narratives might overlook. Furthermore, as these artworks are presented to the public (it is notable that public artwork has long been controversial in evaluating its ethicality, validity, usefulness, success, and necessity), they elicit a collective response. Collingwood's ideas suggest that the audience, through engaging with the art, participates in a shared exploration of the inner lives of individuals within the historical context. The emotional resonance of the artwork facilitates a communal understanding and fosters a dialogue between the artist and each individual viewer.

Jules Michelet, having visited the realm of historical inquiry, chooses to braid together threads of national history and national spirit in his works. Within the intellectual fervor of the 19th century, Michelet’s approach to history stood out from the focus of emotional and psychological dimensions of historical events, where he considers history as an organic expression of a nation’s soul. This approach was marked by a departure from the detached, factual chronicling of events. Instead, he sought to breathe life into history by delving into the collective consciousness of the people, as a form of "history from below." Just as how Collingwood argues a certain “life presence” is definite within every work of art, Michelet envisions history as a living entity, splattered with the emotions, struggles, and aspirations of the people. Logically, art for Michelet became an expression of the collective spirit, mirroring the spirit of nation. Whereas Collingwood drew more from individual emotions and characterizations of the artists, Michelet sees the artistic definition (and genres (relevant to their time periods of history)) to be representative of the nation’s soul. The romanticized depictions of historical events, the portrayal of national heroes, and the artistic celebrations of cultural symbols are all aspects embedded in a nation’s narrative by each artist's ipseity. Moreover, Michelet's approach allows for an exploration of how art functions not just as a passive reflection but as an active agent in the construction of national identity. Artistic endeavors, whether deliberate or spontaneous, become tools that shape perceptions, evoke emotions, and contribute to the shared narrative of a people.

Consider, hypothetically, after a nation’s revolution, where the nation is swamped with the complexities of forging a new identity. Michelet’s approach would be an exploration into how art, during this period, shapes government, rallies the people, and spreads ideas. Possibly, imagery that encapsulates the nation's historical struggles, triumphs, and shared values would emerge as a vital component; and public spaces would be adorned with sculptures and murals that serve as a visual repository of the collective memory, reinforcing the evolving national identity. As the public engages with these artworks (the engagement varies, of which many methods are prevalent to previously mentioned philosophers (or art critics such as Susan Sontag, for that matter)), a sense of shared destiny (or individual values) are spread and fostered. The emotional resonance of these artworks (when significant enough, would transcend socio-economic and cultural disputes (this hypothetical scenario is simply mentioned for illustrative purposes, and does not account for the rapid speed of growth and globalization (thus why the setting is in a hypothetically historical / less advanced nation)). By emphasizing the collective dimensions, Michelet's methodology provides a lens through which the societal impact of art extends beyond aesthetics into the realm of shared experience and historical consciousness. Making works such as Michelangelo's "David" or Jan van Eyck’s “Ghent Altarpiece” more than a placeholder for aesthetic and talent.

Wilhelm von Humboldt also presents a distinctive perspective on the relationship between art and society, underlining individual development and cultural expression (much opposite to many art critics). Humboldt's philosophy centers on the concept of Bildung, a term that encompasses the holistic development of the individual through education and culture. According to Humboldt, for example, the purpose of education (a common example and an important topic) is not merely the acquisition of knowledge but the unfolding of an individual's innate potential, fostering a harmonious development of intellect, character, and creativity. This emphasis on the individual as an autonomous and self-realizing agent distinguishes Humboldt's approach from other theories of his time. In the realm of art, Humboldt's ideas imply that artistic expression becomes a vehicle for the individual's self-discovery and cultivation (similar to Collingwood as both philosophers value the aspect of self and the artist, but different in the artist's motives (convey emotion vs understanding one’s inner self)). Humboldt argues that the artist engages in a process of self-realization when creating art, and contributes to the overall development of their intellectual and emotional capacities, almost more an exercise than a practice. Furthermore, Humboldt's focus on cultural expression as an essential aspect of individual development adds another layer to the complex understanding of art's impact on society. Cultural diversity, according to Humboldt, arises from the collective expressions of individuals coexisting within a society, making art, as a form of cultural expression, a mirror of the cultural perspectives, experiences, and values. Different artistic movements or styles, therefore, represent not only shifts in aesthetic preferences but also variations in how individuals within a society perceive and articulate their existence (including daily experiance, control (whether over their work, their life, or others), satisfaction, desires, preconceived notions, perceived understandings, etc.). For Humboldt, the interconnectedness of individual development and cultural expression is vital for the vitality and diversity of a society. Thus, a society flourishing in art is a society deep in cultural wealth (and the more diverse and genuine the expressions of individuals through art, the more vibrant and culturally enriched a society becomes).

Let there be an artistic community within a vibrant, multicultural city during the Romantic era. In accordance with Humboldt's principles, this society would place a premium on individual creative expression, celebrating the diversity of artistic voices. Humboldt's influence extends beyond individual artists to the very institutions that support the arts. The city, recognizing the importance of fostering individual creativity, establishes cultural spaces that encourage artists like Sofia and Elias (imaginary artists within this community) to explore and share their unique perspectives. The emphasis on cultural expression as a fundamental human right, as advocated by Humboldt, informs policies that support artistic freedom and diversity.

3. Primary Sources

Source 1:

The Painter of Modern Life by Charles Baudelaire

Charles Baudelaire was a prominent French poet and art critic who published the book The Painter of Modern Life back in 1863. His work illustrates his observations regarding the changing urban landscape and how the inherent role of the artist changes in attempts to capture (and ultimately become one with / replicate) the spirit of modernity. Baudelaire, often regarded as a key figure in the Symbolist movement, engages in a reflective discourse on the impact of art on society. The book focuses on life in Paris, including aspects of urbanism, fashion, and the nature of artistic expression. The book is, at its core, a celebration of the "flâneur," an urban explorer who immerses himself in the sensory experiences of the city. Baudelaire presents the artist as an observer and interpreter of modern life, capturing the fleeting and transient moments of the metropolis. Baudelaire's work is a foundational text in understanding the symbiotic relationship between art and society, as it paints the artist as a conduit for expressing the essence of contemporary existence. By allowing oneself to become immersed in existence and conscious of the interpretable world around him, Baudelaire suggests that art could become a mirror which reflects the dynamic and ever-changing nature of society in every moment.

Baudelaire’s writing resonates particularly with Foucault’s exploration of power and the construction of knowledge. According to Foucault, power operates not only through traditional institutions but is also ingrained in discourses and practices that shape societal norms. Baudelaire's painter, through the act of artistic creation, engages in a distinctive form of discourse that becomes a subtle exercise of power. The artist becomes a force influencing the construction of knowledge about contemporary society. In Baudelaire's vision, the artist acts as a commentator, employing artistic language to articulate his unique perspective. This artistic discourse, as Foucault would argue, is not merely an aesthetic endeavor but a strategic participation in the power dynamics that define societal narratives. Furthermore, another relationship could be drawn with R. G. Collingwood’s emphasis on expression of thought and emotion through art. Collingwood's philosophy suggests that artistic expression is not merely a surface-level representation but a profound reflection of the inner life of the artist and, by extension, society. Baudelaire's painter, by engaging with the emotional nuances of modernity, becomes a mirror reflecting the innermost thoughts and feelings of the era. Finally, Baudelaire’s book could be related to Humboldt through emphasis on individual development and cultural expression. Humboldt's philosophy contends that individual creativity is integral to cultural diversity, and the artist, capturing the unique characteristics of modern existence, becomes a symbol of Humboldt's celebration of the uniqueness and diversity inherent in individual artistic voices. Humboldt's ideas on cultural expression and individual development imply that the artist, by bringing forth their singular perspective, plays a vital role in enriching the cultural fabric of society, becoming a beacon.

Source 2:

The Lives of the Artists by Giorgio Vasari

Giorgio Vasari's "The Lives of the Artists" is a collection of biographical accounts of prominent artists from the Renaissance period written in the 16th century. Vasari's compilation provides a vivid portrayal of the lives, works, and impact of renowned artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Giotto. Each biography within the book showcases the multifaceted impact of artistic expressions on the cultural, intellectual, and social fabric of the time.

Humboldt's emphasis on individual development aligns with Vasari's portrayal of artists like Leonardo da Vinci as exemplars of individual genius. Humboldt's advocacy for the nurturing of unique talents and perspectives mirrors Vasari's celebration of the diverse artistic prowess that flourished during the Renaissance. Combining Vasari and Humboldt, a harmonious resonance emerges: Vasari, in rendering his biographical brushstrokes, not only chronicles the external accomplishments of these artists but also becomes a chronicler of the inner journey (profoundly in tune with Humboldt's reverence for the development of the individual within the broader societal context). Secondly, Collingwood's focus on the expression of thought and emotion in art could be connected to Vasari's biographies, where the artist’s inner lives are explored. Vasari's narratives contribute to Collingwood's idea that art provides a window into the emotional and intellectual dimensions of historical periods in the most literal way possible. Vasari's biographies contribute to Michelet's focus on national history, especially in the case of Giotto. Giotto's metamorphosis towards naturalism is not merely an artistic pivot; it is a reflection, a mirroring of broader societal changes, aligning with Michelet's emphasis on the collective spirit of a nation.

Source 3:

The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction by Walter Benjamin

Walter Benjamin's essay, "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," speaks about the changes brought about by technological advancements. This is a field often overlooked when analyzing the progress of art and history in terms of past art history. Technology and globalization is a pivotal force in making the art world an ever-changing space. The essay not only explores the transformation of art but also delves into the implications of these changes for society, particularly the reproducibility of art through mechanical means, and how the line between making art and making a product is getting ever blurrier. In a world of mass production, Benjamin argues that art loses its authenticity and ritualistic value. The reproducibility of art, whether through photography or film, fundamentally changes the relationship between the work of art and the viewer. Artists such as Takashi Murikami have scientifically created production lines to commercialize their work, making the mass consumption of art possible, but at the cost of the original's unique presence. Benjamin’s essay also talks about the impact of the accessibility of art. A perspective that questioned the influence that the macc-accessible imagery has on the viewer’s cultural memory, ritual, appreciation, and societal perceptions.

Benjamin’s analysis of mechanical reproduction is prevalent to all five philosophers (Michel Foucault, Edward Said, R. G. Collingwood, Jules Michelet, and Wilhelm von Humboldt). The ways in which the entities in charge of the means of art reproduction exercise control over the narratives and discourses that are contained in reproduced artworks are made clear by Foucault's emphasis on power relations as a networked force functioning across society. His idea of "disciplinary power" becomes especially pertinent when one considers how the mass production of copies of art helps to discipline society norms and values, so establishing power through forming a collective consciousness. Furthermore, Foucault’s ideology can be connected to the construction of knowledge about art, and how authoritative voices and discourses in the act of reproduction become integral to the exercise of power. For Said, his concept of “othering” becomes particularly relevant, suggesting that the loss of authenticity in reproduction may lead to a homogenization of cultural expressions, reinforcing Western-centric narratives and marginalizing diverse voices, and that mechanically reproduced art perpetuates and disseminates stereotypical representations of non-Western cultures. Moreover, this act of mechanical reproduction could be embedded itself into imperialistic power structures, with technologies and industries originating in the West asserting control over the means of representation, acting as a primary method of propaganda. Collingwood's philosophy, centered on the idea that art is a form of expression, aligns with Benjamin's concerns about the potential dilution of this expressive quality in mass-produced works. For Collingwood, authentic emotions within art comes from the unique connection fostered between the artist and his creation, making reproduction for the sake of accessibility a sacrifice in individual expression. For Michelet, the loss of original aura, as Benjamin calls it, is a key aspect for investigating how the democratization of art either unifies a nation through shared cultural experiences or contributes to fragmentation as individual interpretations become more prevalent. Michelet's examination extends to how the accessibility of art to a broader audience influences the collective cultural identity, crucial in considering the symbiotic relationship between art and the collective spirit. Finally, Humboldt’s philosophy recognizes the potential for the democratization of art to foster individual creativity for the viewers. In line with Benjamin’s writing, Humboldt’s ideas could also argue that by making the means of production more accessible, it would also give power to a wider variety of artistic voices and expression.

Source 4:

Stańczyk by Jan Matejko

Stańczyk is a renowned painting by Polish artist Jan Matejko, created in 1862. The painting’s subject matter is the court jester Stańczyk, who is known for making political commentary in his performances. As Matejko was known for painting pivotal moments in Polish history, usually crowded scenes and large groups, it was unusual to have such an isolated subject as Stańczyk. The painting is set during a significant event in Polish history, after the news of the loss of the Battle of Orsza to the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1514. Matejko's Stańczyk is a poignant representation of the emotional turmoil that followed the devastating news. The jester, usually known for his wit, is shown in a moment of profound contemplation, highlighting the gravity of the political and military events. The painting serves as a reflection of Polish national identity and collective memory (a direct reflection of the national spirit ideology advocated by Michelet). The Battle of Orsza was a critical moment in the Jagiellonian era, and Stańczyk captures the psychological toll it took on the Polish people. Behind where the jester sat, in the same red color as the jester's clothing, a ballroom filled with joy and carelessness. The similar color scheme between the subject and the scene behind illustrates that both Stańczyk and the people of the party (presumably the royal families) should be in alliance, but Stańczyk is worried about the direction of the country (as even after the loss of the battle, the people in charge still chooses ignorance). Even more so, this painting is symbolic of the Sad Clown Paradox, with the extinguished candle on the floor symbolizing the loss of hope, while the discarded jester's mask being the suspension of laughter in the face of tragedy. Stańczyk demonstrates the emotional depth that can be conveyed through a singular work of art, even more than representation of historical events. It showcases the nuances of human emotion and societal response to adversity can be captured.

4. Secondary Sources (4-5)

Source 1 (Paring):

Intuition and Art by Louis Arnaud Reid and The History of Intuition and Its Role in the Composing Process by Patricia E. Conners

Both sources analyze the intricate relationship between intuition and artistic expression. While Reid’s work is more of the general impact of intuition across art forms, Conners narrows his focus to the historical evolution of intuition, and enters into an analysis of musical composition. Though different in approach, The importance of intuition in the creative process is emphasized in both texts. Reid focuses on the ways that artists create original and genuine works by using intuitive techniques in a variety of media. Conners also documents the historical cases in which composers used their gut feelings to help them over the challenges of writing music. Moreover, both works recognize the possible social significance of intuitively inspired art. Reid investigates the ways in which intuitive processes influence how art affects both specific viewers and society as a whole. In the domain of music, Conners aims to shed light on how intuitive elements in musical compositions contribute to more general conversations about the influence of art on society.

Source 2 (Paring):

The Expression of Emotion by O. H. Green and Expression of Emotion in (Some of) the Arts by Robert Stecker

The two sources present perceptive viewpoints on the intricate relationship between emotions in society and creative expression. The work of O. H. Green explores the complex world of emotions and how they are portrayed in the visual arts. According to Green, the portrayal of emotion in art is a dynamic process that involves the viewer's interaction and the artist's interpretation rather than a simple replication of reality. Robert Stecker's "Expression of Emotion in (Some of) the Arts" expands on this idea by examining how emotions are expressed in a variety of artistic mediums. Stecker provides a thorough examination of the various ways that art communicates and evokes emotional reactions as she explores how emotions appear in music, literature, and visual arts. In "The Expression of Emotion," Green makes the case that creative depictions of emotions entail a complicated interaction between cultural context and subjective interpretation, rather than merely reflecting the outside world. Green challenges a more basic view of art as essentially replicating life by emphasizing the dynamic aspect of emotional expression within the visual arts, adding a subtle depth to current knowledge. However, Stecker's "Expression of Emotion in (Some of) the Arts" adopts a more comprehensive strategy, examining emotional expression across a range of artistic mediums. According to Stecker, the many creative mediums enhance our comprehension of the emotional effect of art beyond its visual representations by evoking and communicating emotions in unique ways. Both sources acknowledge the difficulty of using art to effectively communicate emotions, which is where they agree. Green's emphasis on the visual arts is consistent with Stecker's more general investigation, highlighting the necessity of having a thorough grasp of the ways in which emotions are portrayed in a variety of creative contexts. While there is consensus about the complex relationship between emotion and art, differences arise when it comes to how much emphasis is placed on the particular techniques of expression used in various art genres. Green's focus on the visual arts can indicate a more specialized viewpoint, which might be different from Stecker's inclusive strategy that includes music and literature. These little differences of opinion, however, add to a more comprehensive discussion by encouraging academics to think about the minute aspects of emotional expression in certain creative situations.

Source 3:

How Art Stimulates Theological Reflection in the Conversation Between a Work of Art, the Artist and the Viewer by Leeanne Mallaby

This secondary source by Mallaby explores the complex interplay between the viewer's participation, religion, and art. In this investigation, Mallaby looks at how the artwork itself, the artist, and the audience engage in a dynamic interaction that serves as a catalyst for theological thought. Mallaby starts out by outlining a theoretical framework that links the process of seeing art with theological thought. The author then uses a number of case studies to illustrate this paradigm by examining particular works of art and the theological problems they raise. By using this methodology, Mallaby reveals the many levels of meaning that are present in the creative process and emphasizes how the dialogue that occurs between the artist, the spectator, and the artwork itself becomes a means of facilitating theological inquiry. Mallaby's main point is that art provides a special forum for thought and communication between the observer, the creator, and the piece of art, and that it is a powerful stimulus for theological study. This perspective resonates with similar arguments made by philosophers and art historians who recognize the multifaceted impact of art. According to the author, the aesthetic experience is more than just looking at something; it's an interactive process that challenges viewers to consider religious ideas and themes. Because Mallaby emphasizes that art has the power to provoke theological reflection, her work broadens the conversation on how art affects society. By doing this, it provides pathways for comprehending the ways in which creative representations advance serious insights on spiritual and theological aspects in addition to cultural and societal conversations.

Source 4 (Paring):

From Aesthetics to Psychology: Notes on Vygotsky's "Psychology of Art" by Marcelo Guimaraes Lima and Putting the "Pain" In Painting: A Conceptualization and Consideration of Serious Art by J. Ryan Napier

Lima examines the manner in which Vygotsky's theories - which have their origins in psychology - offer understanding of both the aesthetic experience and the larger social ramifications of creative performance. However, Napier's literature examines the intrinsic relationship between suffering and the creative process, employing a philosophical approach to serious art. Napier challenges accepted ideas about what constitutes creative creativity by arguing that meaningful art requires a certain amount of emotional anguish. With Lima concentrating on the theoretical underpinnings and Napier exploring the emotional aspects of serious art, both sources make a substantial contribution to the area by bridging the gaps between psychology and aesthetics. The main contention of Lima's paper centers on Vygotsky's framework, which suggests that the psychology of art influences both individual and collective psychological processes in addition to aesthetics. Lima stresses the connection between human psychology and creative expression by examining the ways in which the aesthetic experience is entwined with larger societal processes. This viewpoint supports Vygotsky's assertion that art is a potent tool for comprehending the intricacies of the human mind and how it interacts with societal events. By giving a sophisticated perspective that goes beyond conventional aesthetic evaluations, Lima's work expands the debate on the psychological aspects of art and adds to the body of current study. Conversely, Napier's main argument is around the idea that genuine artistic expression frequently involves suffering and mental turmoil. Napier questions accepted ideas about the delight of creation, arguing that meaningful art necessitates a more in-depth discussion of discomfort—both social and personal. By emphasizing the emotional work involved in significant artistic undertakings, this approach adds a layer to the conversation about the influence of art on society. By stretching the boundaries of our knowledge of creative production and providing a conceptual framework that challenges readers to reevaluate the connection between art, emotion, and societal influence, Napier's work enhances the body of previous studies.

Source 5 (Paring):

The Artist-Activist: History and Healing through Art by Angela Davis Johnson and Renaissance and Renascences by Erwin Panofsky

Johnson explores the intersections between activism and art in his work, highlighting the role artists play as historical healers. Her examination of several historical periods demonstrates the varied ways in which artists have responded to social concerns in order to promote knowledge and transformation. According to Johnson, the artist-activist is essential in reshaping stories and using artistic expression to address past traumas. In contrast, Panofsky's "Renaissance and Renascences" offers a thorough examination of the Renaissance era, exploring the resurgence of classical concepts and artwork. With an emphasis on the intellectual and cultural transformations that defined the Renaissance, Panofsky's research argues for a nuanced interpretation of the term "renaissance" in relation to other historical eras. Content-wise, Johnson's work emphasizes the political and social aspects of art, offering a story in which artists actively confront social issues and historical traumas. She looks at how art, especially that produced by underrepresented groups, may be used to promote healing and record history. On the other hand, Panofsky provides a thorough historical study of the Renaissance, highlighting the revival of classical aesthetics and the intellectual currents that influenced this revolutionary period. Panofsky's main conclusions center on the creative and intellectual revolutions of the Renaissance, whereas Johnson's work makes strong claims for the use of art as a tool for historical action and healing. Both sources deepen the conversation on the complex effects of art, which advances previous scholarly work. Johnson's focus on action enhances Panofsky's historical study by offering a modern, socially conscious viewpoint. Both sources stress the transformational power of art, but they focus on different aspects of it; Panofsky examines a historical renaissance, while Johnson addresses contemporary action.

Source 6 (Paring):

From "Art and Identity: For Whom, For What?" The "Present" Upon the "Contemporary" by Satō Dōshin, Sarah Allen and Constructing an artistic identity by Alison Bain

In their joint work, Satō Dōshin and Sarah Allen examine the intricacies of modern art, interrogating the intentions and target audiences of artists. They discuss the idea of identity in art and provide insight into how artists navigate the current societal landscape while expressing themselves artistically. Alison Bain's work, on the other hand, focuses on the path of the individual artist in "Constructing an Artistic Identity." Bain examines how artists create their identities in great detail, highlighting the complex interplay between the demands of society and the artistic persona. By offering insightful analyses of the contemporary art scene and the place of the individual artist within it, these sources greatly advance the body of knowledge already known in the area. The investigation of the "present" and "contemporary" facets of art by Satō Dōshin and Sarah Allen adds a lively and culturally pertinent viewpoint to the current conversation. In the same spirit, Alison Bain's emphasis on the formation of creative identity deepens our comprehension of the social and personal aspects of artistic expression. Although the sources' examination of the connection between art and identity is similar, there are also subtle distinctions between them. While Sarah Allen and Satō Dōshin present a more comprehensive view of society, Alison Bain focuses on the experiences of specific artists. These subtleties highlight the complexity inherent in the creation of creative identity and help to a more thorough understanding of the multidimensional effect of art on society.

Source 7 (Paring):

Is Visual Culture Becoming Our Canon of Art? By Donalyn Heise and Political Art, Cultural Policy, and Artistic Agency by Jeremy Valentine

Heise examines the ramifications of this transition as she explores whether visual culture is becoming the new canon of art in the modern day. Her research examines how visual culture, with its focus on pictures and multimedia, is changing society views of artistic worth as it navigates the shifting landscape of art reception. Valentine, on the other hand, focuses on the relationship between political art, cultural policy, and artists' autonomy. He looks at how political environments and laws influence artistic expression, highlighting how art has the power to influence politics. The two sources share a common theme on the effect of art on society and the dynamic relationship that is always changing between creative expression, cultural policy, and the evolution of visual culture, even if they have different areas of focus. Heise carefully examines how visual imagery is becoming more and more dominant in modern society in order to further his investigation of visual culture as a developing canon. She argues that there is a clear tendency favoring visual expressions over conventional forms, and that this change has consequences for how society creates its canon of art. Her thesis challenges preconceived ideas about what makes art significant and resonantly aligns with larger conversations on the democratization of art. Valentine, on the other hand, emphasizes the complex connection between art and politics in his study of political art. He investigates how artists navigate political environments on their own initiative and how cultural policies in turn affect creative output. By examining different but connected aspects of the link between art and society, both sources provide a substantial contribution to the body of extant knowledge. Heise's examination of visual culture challenges established hierarchies and is in line with the current conversation about the democratization and accessibility of art. Valentine, on the other hand, emphasizes the possibility that art may both shape and be shaped by political circumstances, adding dimension to conversations about political art and creative agency.

Source 8 (Paring):

The Power of Art by Simon Schama and SUPER POWER ART (a book review on The Power of Art by Simon Schama) by Donald Kuspit

"The Power of Art" by Simon Schama is a thorough analysis of significant artists throughout history that shows how their creations have influenced society and philosophy. Schama contends that art has the capacity to change society norms and views by resonating beyond time and geography. He explores the personal stories of artists and makes links between them and the larger historical and cultural circumstances in which they were born, raised, and produced their works. In his critique of Schama's writing, Donald Kuspit offers a critical evaluation of the book's advantages and disadvantages. Kuspit has reservations about Schama's emphasis on specific artists rather than more general cultural and socioeconomic tendencies, even if he appreciates Schama's skillful narrative and attention to the emotional impact of art. Both sources give insights on the impact of art on society, which greatly adds to the body of existing knowledge. Schama's work emphasizes the transforming power of unique artistic voices and is a valuable resource for comprehending the cultural and personal aspects of artistic effect. However, Kuspit's critique applies a critical eye to Schama's story and raises concerns about the wider societal ramifications of creative pursuits. When combined, they provide a sophisticated discussion that broadens our comprehension of the complex connection between art and social change. But the sources emphasize different things. Schama emphasizes the power of the individual artist, whereas Kuspit calls for a more thorough analysis of the larger societal factors at work. Schama's "The Power of Art" is consistent with primary and secondary sources that highlight the role that individual artists play in forming cultural environments. Kuspit's evaluation challenges the idea that the genius of individual creators alone can account for the power of art, adding a degree of skepticism and scrutiny. Schama's viewpoint is consistent with the conventional notion of the artist as a cultural hero, but Kuspit's critique offers a more modern discussion that takes into account the larger societal framework within which art functions. The combination of these sources therefore mirrors the current discussion in art history and cultural studies over the relative influence of individual brilliance vs group cultural influences in forming social standards.